Motivation and emotion/Book/2025/Neurodivergence and motivation

Motivation is a key driving force behind our pursuit of goals and greatly influences our actions and decision-making. It arises from internal factors such as desires, values, beliefs, and emotions, as well as external influences like incentives, recognition, and support (Ryan & Deci, 2020). This chapter explores the complex relationship between neurological diversity—specifically attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and autism spectrum disorder (ASD)—and the subtle processes that motivate us to act, achieve, and connect with the world.

Individuals with ADHD and ASD often experience motivation differently compared to their neurotypical peers. We will explore the neurological foundations of these variations, including how differences in brain structure and function contribute to the distinct motivational profiles associated with these conditions. Our goal is to move beyond simple stereotypes and develop a deeper understanding of the challenges and strengths that neurodivergent individuals face as they pursue their goals.

By combining theoretical frameworks, such as self-determination theory (SDT), with insights from neuroscience, we aim to provide a comprehensive understanding of motivation in individuals with ADHD and ASD examining how impairments in executive functioning (EF), reward processing, sensory sensitivities, and emotional dysregulation (ED) impact motivation, while also highlighting opportunities such as hyperfocus, intense interests, and unique skills that can serve as powerful motivators.

Addressing these challenges requires robust support systems. Developing structured routines, maintaining clear communication, and employing effective coping strategies can help neurodivergent individuals manage their emotions and stress better. Recognising neurological diversity highlights the richness of human cognition (see Figure 1). By tailoring support to each individual, we can prevent overwhelm, minimise behavioural issues, and encourage resilience and motivation.

Motivation is the psychological process that initiates, guides, and maintains goal-oriented behaviours. It is broadly categorised based on the source of the driving force: intrinsic or extrinsic (Ryan & Deci, 2020; see Figure 2 and Table 1).

Arises from internal fulfilment and enjoyment. Individuals engage in activities for personal satisfaction rather than external rewards. When goals align with personal values and interests, it boosts commitment, well-being, creativity, and resilience.

Involves pursuing goals for external rewards, like money, grades, or recognition, rather than for personal enjoyment. This dependence on external validation influences goal-oriented behaviour.

SDT is a comprehensive psychological framework that explores the complexities of human motivation and personality development. Developed by psychologists Edward L. Deci and Richard M. Ryan, this theory comprises five key sub-theories (see Figure 3).

Ryan and Deci (2020) expanded on their earlier work, emphasising the key differences between intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation. They state that people are most motivated when their needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness are fulfilled, as outlined in SDT.

The feeling of having control over one's actions. It encourages intrinsic motivation by fostering ownership and self-directed effort, leading to greater persistence through challenges when actions are self-chosen.

The desire to feel capable and successful. It motivates individuals to seek out and tackle challenges, develop skills, and grow. Confident individuals are more likely to choose tasks that promote personal development.

The innate longing to connect with others, influences motivation and behaviour by fostering a sense of belonging. This need drives people to pursue goals that align with both their own values and those of their social group.

SDT provides a deeper understanding of motivation by emphasising the importance of intrinsic factors, as well as the role that social and cultural contexts play in shaping our drive to learn, grow, and succeed.

From a neurological perspective, motivation is a dynamic process involving multiple brain circuits that energise, direct, and sustain goal-oriented behaviour. These circuits evaluate the value of a reward, calculate the effort needed, and help maintain focus during execution. Motivation develops from basic drives to complex, purpose-driven actions, and can be divided into three main neurological stages: valence ("wanting"), arousal ("go"), and control ("how"). The interplay of specialised brain regions and neuromodulators shapes the strength, flexibility, and direction of motivated behaviour. Understanding this system is vital for recognising how neurodivergence impacts motivation and goal attainment (Salamone & Correa, 2024).

Motivation originates from a complex process involving a network of key neurotransmitters (see Table 2), each playing its own distinct role in shaping our behaviour and emotional well-being. Motivation is a dynamic process that involves the coordination of fast and slow signalling systems to determine incentive value, mobilise effort, assess risk, and focus on a goal.

Neurotransmitter activity influences goal-directed behaviour through the coordinated functions of subcortical and cortical structures, known collectively as the motivational circuit (Rolls, 2025). This network assesses rewards and mobilises resources necessary to pursue them, integrating the key regions (see Table 3) to form the functional architecture that processes chemical signalling with EF to maintain effort towards long-term goals.

'Neurodivergence' is an umbrella term that refers to neurological variations that differ from what is considered typical (Kapp et al., 2013). This term includes conditions such as ASD, ADHD, dyslexia, dyspraxia, and Tourette's syndrome. The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders fifth edition (DSM–5; American Psychiatric Association [APA], 2013), serves as the primary diagnostic tool for mental disorders. It outlines the criteria, symptoms, and diagnostic thresholds essential for ensuring consistency among healthcare professionals.

ADHD is a neurodevelopmental disorder that begins in childhood and can persist into adulthood, characterised by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity, which vary among individuals (Chaulagain et al., 2023). Impulsivity is characterised by making quick decisions without considering the consequences, such as interrupting, blurting out answers, or taking uncalculated risks.

These behaviours can disrupt focus, task completion, and responsibilities, often leading to lost concentration, disorganisation, procrastination, and missed deadlines (see Figure 4). Poor time management can hinder career progress, while impulsivity can cause misunderstandings or strained relationships (Faraone et al., 2024).

ASD is a lifelong neurodevelopmental condition characterised by challenges in social communication and interpreting cues like facial expressions and tone of voice, which can lead to misunderstandings and social isolation. Individuals often have restricted interests and engage in repetitive behaviours—such as routines or stimming (e.g., hand-flapping, rocking)—to maintain stability or regulate sensory input (Hirota & King, 2023). ASD is classified into three support levels (see Figure 5), emphasising the importance of tailored supports, such as therapy, educational adjustments, and community resources, to assist individuals in managing daily life and reaching their full potential.

ADHD frequently co-occurs with ASD, which makes distinguishing and accurately diagnosing both conditions more challenging. This overlap can increase the risk of other issues, such as anxiety and depression, further complicating daily life and functioning (Rong et al., 2021).

Motivational traits in neurodivergence reflect specific dysfunctions in key neural circuits responsible for setting goals, maintaining engagement, and directing attention. These conditions provide critical insights into how neuromodulatory variations directly influence motivation and effort.

Motivational traits in neurodivergent conditions such as ADHD and ASD provide vital insights into the neural processes that influence engagement, effort, and goal-oriented behaviours. These unique motivational characteristics stem from dysfunctions in key neural networks, particularly the PFC-striatum circuitry, which is essential for EF, planning, and reward processing.

Individuals with ASD and ADHD have notable EF deficits, particularly in inhibition and working memory, with comorbidity leading to even greater challenges (Ceruti et al., 2024). These problems directly reduce planning capacity and task initiation, making many activities feel overwhelming. This frequently results in avoidance and procrastination (Sadozai et al., 2024).

Many people with ADHD and ASD experience hyperfocus, a state of intense, sustained engagement in highly stimulating or intrinsically enjoyable activities. While this deep focus acts as a powerful motivator, enabling significant achievement in specific domains, it severely impairs attentional shifting when necessary. Research continues to explore the unique features of hyperfocus, often distinguishing it from similar deep engagement states, such as 'flow'. Despite its advantages as a motivator, hyperfocus can severely challenge task prioritisation and life balance (Ashinoff, 2021).

Both conditions exhibit altered reward processing, often making typical social, delayed, or non-intrinsic rewards less effective motivators. This atypical response impacts participation in activities lacking immediate or personal relevance. Because ADHD co-occurs in approximately 38.5% of people with ASD (Rong et al., 2021), examining their shared and unique influences is crucial for understanding and supporting motivation in neurodivergent groups.

While ADHD is traditionally characterised by symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity, mounting research highlights that pervasive deficits in motivation are also a major, debilitating aspect of the condition. Importantly, these challenges are not due to laziness or lack of desire; instead, they arise from specific neurological differences in how the ADHD brain processes rewards, evaluates effort, and engages with long-term goals. Motivational traits in ADHD are closely linked to dysfunctions in catecholaminergic neurotransmitter systems, primarily involving dopamine and norepinephrine. These pathways originate in key brain regions, such as the VTA and the LC, and extend to the PFC and striatum (Faraone et al., 2024).

Dysregulation in these systems results in two primary issues:

Individuals with ADHD show altered dopamine pathways, which are crucial for reward and motivation, leading to reduced dopamine signalling (Wu et al., 2012). This means that activities motivating to neurotypical individuals may not have the same effect. They often struggle to initiate and sustain effort for tasks lacking immediate rewards—a deficit commonly referred to as a deficit in the activation component of motivation (Volkow et al., 2011).

This catecholamine imbalance manifests as ED, a significant and challenging feature of ADHD. Disrupted dopamine and norepinephrine signalling, particularly in adults, hampers the brain’s ability to regulate emotional intensity and employ executive strategies. Consequently, these dysfunctions lead to low frustration tolerance, emotional instability, and rapid mood swings—problems that significantly impact ongoing motivation and goal-directed behaviour (Soler-Gutiérrez et al., 2023).

Complex factors, including challenges with social cues, sensory processing, and distinctive EF profiles, influence motivation in individuals with ASD. These motivational differences vary considerably among people with ASD, emphasising the importance of recognising and supporting their diverse motivational drivers.

Individuals with ASD process rewards differently, particularly in social contexts. Consequently, typical cues and incentives that encourage social involvement may be less effective. This can result in reduced motivation to participate in social activities that do not align with their interests, making it challenging to form meaningful social connections (Clements et al., 2018).

Sensory processing differences significantly influence motivation in individuals with ASD, often manifesting as either heightened sensitivities or sensory seeking behaviours (Ben-Sasson et al., 2019).

Many people with ASD have strong reactions to sensory input, frequently leading them to avoid loud, bright, or crowded environments. This avoidance can lessen their willingness to participate and increase anxiety, restricting their involvement.

Conversely, some individuals are strongly driven by the need for specific sensory experiences. Actions such as fidgeting or self-stimulation (stimming) help regulate their arousal and achieve a desired alert or calming state, thereby supporting improved focus and engagement (see Figure 7).

ED significantly affects motivation in individuals with ASD. ED, characterised by difficulty managing the intensity and duration of emotional responses, is common within the autistic community (McDonald et al., 2024). This is closely linked to two main challenges: sensory overload and social impairments, where resulting strong negative emotions (distress, anxiety, frustration) lead to task avoidance or social withdrawal. Motivational behaviours, like stimming or engaging in restricted interests, may thus act as self-regulation strategies to achieve a more comfortable level of arousal and ease emotional discomfort.

Understanding how neurological differences influence motivation is essential for supporting neurodivergent individuals. For those with ASD or ADHD, interventions based on SDT (which emphasise autonomy, competence, and relatedness—see Figure 8) are especially effective in enhancing intrinsic motivation (Di Domenico & Ryan, 2017). Taking a personalised and holistic approach helps identify challenges and leverage strengths, enabling neurodivergent individuals to reach their full potential.

Interventions (see Table 4) should be carefully designed to address deficits in EF and reward processing while creating an optimal environment (Sadozai et al., 2024).

Quiz 1 Which of the following best illustrates how ADHD affects motivation? Difficulty adapting to changes in routine but strongly motivated by restricted interests. Reduced motivation for monotonous tasks, but high productivity when engaged in areas of passion. Heightened sensory sensitivity resulting in avoidance behaviour. Strong preference for structured environments with predictable routines. 2 Unexpected changes in routines can reduce motivation in individuals with ASD. True False

Understanding the connection between neurological differences and motivation is essential for building effective support systems for neurodivergent individuals, such as those with ASD, ADHD, and other cognitive variations. Each person’s unique neurological profile shapes motivation: some are driven by internal interests, while others are more influenced by external rewards or social recognition.

Neurological differences like ADHD and autism impact the brain’s reward and control systems, which in turn affect motivation. For example, ADHD involves catecholaminergic dysfunction (dopamine/norepinephrine), making delayed rewards less motivating and causing challenges with ED. This often hinders task persistence, particularly with activities lacking immediate gratification.

In ASD, motivation is often tied to sensory needs and focused interests, with conventional social rewards playing a relatively minor role. As a result, some individuals may withdraw socially or develop self-stimulatory behaviours ("stimming") to regulate themselves.

Both ADHD and ASD can involve executive function deficits that undermine planning and self-control, leading to avoidant behaviour. Interventions based on SDT, which emphasise autonomy, competence, and relatedness, are most effective in fostering motivation and overcoming these challenges.

By recognising these unique motivational pathways, we can design more inclusive, empowering environments that maximise potential and support lifelong growth and well-being for neurodivergent individuals.

• ADHD and motivation (Book chapter, 2022)
• Autism and motivation (Book chapter, 2024)
• Motivational theories (Wikipedia)

• ADHD Australia (
• Autism Awareness Australia (
• How Dopamine Affects Learning and Motivation in ADHD Brains (YouTube Video, How to ADHD, 2021)
• Neurodivergent Motivation: How to Overcome Task Paralysis & Boost Your Drive (Blue Sky Learning, 2024)
• Raising Children (Neurodiversity and neurodivergence: a guide for families, Raising Children)