Doing Philosophy/Beginner’s Philosophy Glossary
This glossary provides brief definitions of terms used in philosophy that balances clarity with depth to make it useful to novice philosophy students.[1] As you become more proficient, please study more complete, accurate, and nuanced definitions. Terms are linked to more complete definitions. This is a more complete glossary of philosophy may also be helpful.
A
Absurd – In existentialism, the conflict between humanity’s search for meaning and a universe that appears indifferent.
Aesthetics – The study of beauty, art, and taste.
Altruism – Acting for the benefit of others, sometimes at one’s own expense.
Ambiguity – When a word or phrase has more than one possible meaning.
Analogy – Comparing two things to highlight similarities.
Analytic Philosophy – A style of philosophy emphasizing clarity, logic, and language analysis.
Anthropocentrism – Viewing humans as the central or most important beings.
A Priori – Knowledge gained independently of experience (e.g., “All bachelors are unmarried”).
A Posteriori – Knowledge gained through experience (e.g., “The cat is on the mat”).
Argument – A set of reasons offered to support a conclusion.
Atomism – The idea that everything is made up of tiny, indivisible particles.
Autonomy – The ability to govern oneself; self-rule.
B
Belief – Acceptance that something is true.
Bias – A tendency that can distort judgment.
Buddhism (philosophical aspect) – A tradition focusing on suffering, impermanence, and the path to enlightenment.
Burden of Proof – Responsibility to provide evidence for a claim.
C
Categorical Imperative – Kant’s principle: act only on maxims you could will to become universal law.
Causality – The relation of cause and effect.
Cogito – “I think, therefore I am” (Descartes’ foundation of certainty).
Compatibilism – The belief that free will and determinism can coexist.
Concept – A general idea used to organize thought.
Conscience – Inner sense of right and wrong.
Consequentialism – Ethics that judges actions by outcomes.
Contradiction – A statement that cannot be true and false at the same time in the same sense.
Critical Thinking – Careful reasoning to avoid error.
Cynicism (ancient) – A philosophy of living simply, rejecting materialism.
D
Deconstruction – A method of analyzing texts to expose hidden assumptions.
Deduction – Reasoning from general rules to specific conclusions.
Determinism – The idea that all events are caused by prior events.
Dialectic – Progress of ideas through thesis, antithesis, and synthesis.
Divine Command Theory – The belief that morality is determined by God’s will.
Dogma – A principle accepted as true without question.
Dualism – The idea that reality is composed of two substances (e.g., mind and body).
E
Empiricism – Knowledge comes mainly from sense experience.
Enlightenment (philosophical) – An era emphasizing reason, science, and human progress.
Epistemology – Study of knowledge.
Equivocation – Using a word in two different senses in an argument.
Ethics – The study of right and wrong.
Eudaimonia – Aristotle’s term for flourishing or living well.
Existentialism – A philosophy focusing on individual freedom, responsibility, and meaning.
F
Fallacy – An error in reasoning.
Falsifiability – A claim is scientific if it can be tested and possibly proven false.
Fatalism – The belief that events are fixed and unavoidable.
Free Will – The ability to choose independently of external causes.
Functionalism (mind) – The view that mental states are defined by what they do, not what they’re made of.
G
Golden Mean – Aristotle’s idea that virtue lies between extremes.
Golden Rule – Treat others as you’d want to be treated.
Great Chain of Being – Medieval idea of a natural hierarchy from God to animals.
H
Hedonism – Pursuit of pleasure as the highest good.
Hermeneutics – The art of interpretation, especially of texts.
Humanism – Philosophy emphasizing human reason, dignity, and values.
Hypothesis – A proposed explanation, to be tested.
I
Idealism – The view that reality is fundamentally mental or immaterial.
Identity – What makes a person the same over time.
Induction – Reasoning from particular cases to general principles.
Infinite Regress – An endless chain of reasoning or causes.
Innate Ideas – Ideas present in the mind from birth.
Instrumental Value – Something valuable as a means to an end.
Intrinsic Value – Something valuable in itself.
Intuition – Immediate knowledge without reasoning.
J
Justice – Fairness in how people are treated.
Just War Theory – Criteria for determining when war is morally justified.
K
Knowledge – Traditionally defined as justified true belief.
L
Liberty – Freedom to act without external restraint.
Logic – The study of correct reasoning.
Logical Positivism – The belief that only empirically verifiable statements are meaningful.
M
Materialism – The view that everything is physical matter.
Metaphysics – The study of being and reality.
Monism – The belief that reality is made of one kind of thing.
Moral Relativism – Morality depends on culture or perspective.
Mysticism – Belief in gaining knowledge of reality through direct spiritual experience.
N
Natural Law – Moral principles said to be inherent in nature or human reason.
Naturalism – The belief that everything can be explained by natural causes.
Necessary Condition – Something required for another thing to be true.
Nihilism – The rejection of meaning or values.
O
Objective – Independent of personal opinion.
Ontology – The study of what exists.
Opinion – A belief not necessarily based on evidence.
Original Position – John Rawls’ thought experiment to determine justice principles.
P
Paradox – A statement that seems contradictory but may reveal truth.
Phenomenology – The study of conscious experience.
Philosophy – Love of wisdom; the study of fundamental questions.
Pluralism – Recognition of diversity in truth, values, or cultures.
Pragmatism – The view that ideas are true if they work in practice.
Premise – A statement that supports a conclusion in an argument.
Problem of Evil – How to reconcile God’s goodness with the existence of evil.
Property Dualism – The view that mind and matter are distinct properties of one substance.
Q
Qualia – The subjective qualities of conscious experience (e.g., the redness of red).
Question-Begging – A fallacy where the conclusion is assumed in the premise.
R
Rationalism – The view that reason is the primary source of knowledge.
Realism – The view that things exist independently of perception.
Reductionism – Explaining complex things in terms of simpler parts.
Relativism – Truth depends on context or perspective.
Responsibility – Being accountable for one’s actions.
S
Skepticism – Doubting the possibility of certain knowledge.
Social Contract – The theory that government legitimacy comes from an agreement among people.
Solipsism – The belief that only one’s own mind is certain to exist.
Socratic Method – Asking probing questions to clarify ideas.
Stoicism – A philosophy of self-control and acceptance of fate.
Subjective – Dependent on personal perspective.
Substance – That which exists independently and underlies properties.
Syllogism – A form of reasoning with two premises and a conclusion.
T
Tabula Rasa – The idea that the mind begins as a “blank slate.”
Teleology – Explaining things in terms of purpose.
Theism – Belief in God or gods.
Theodicy – A defense of God’s goodness in the face of evil.
Theory – A set of principles explaining something.
Thought Experiment – An imagined scenario used to test ideas.
Truth – That which corresponds with reality.
U
Utilitarianism – The view that the best action maximizes overall happiness.
Utopia – An imagined perfect society.
V
Validity – In logic, when conclusions follow correctly from premises.
Virtue – A moral excellence (e.g., courage, honesty).
Virtue Ethics – An ethical theory focusing on character rather than rules or consequences.
W
Will to Power – Nietzsche’s idea of the drive to assert and expand oneself.
Wisdom – The ability to live well through sound judgment and understanding.
Z
Zeno’s Paradoxes – Ancient puzzles about motion and infinity (e.g., Achilles and the tortoise).