Indian Shipping/Book 2/Chapter 2

We now reach the age of the Moguls, under whom the political unity of India was nearly attained after the lapse of centuries, and an imperial naval establishment was founded and maintained, especially in Bengal, the home of Indian shipbuilding.

Previous to Akbar we have hardly any record of Indian naval activity except perhaps the two exploits of Babar, the one in a.d. 1528, when Babar fought a naval battle on the Ganges near Kanauj, in which he seized about thirty or forty of the enemy's boats, and the other achieved on the Gogra, on which the army of Kharid collected 100-150 vessels and gave Babar battle.

The government of India under Akbar, however, as might be naturally expected, gave a great impetus to Indian shipping and shipbuilding, especially in Bengal. The main source of our information is of course the Ayeen-i-Akbari, that well-known storehouse of accurate details regarding the life and work of Akbar the Great. According to Abul-Fazl, there were framed elaborate regulations for the organization of the Naval Department or Admiralty, the "office of Meer Behry" as it was called. These regulations will be found to be remarkably akin to, ​and in some respects will be even thought to have been anticipated by, the regulations governing Chandra Gupta's Admiralty about 1,900 years earlier, which have been, as we have already seen, preserved for us in that monumental Sanskrit work, the Arthaśāstra of Kautilya.

Akbar's Admiralty had, broadly speaking, four functions to perform. The first was to see to the supply of ships and boats for the purpose of navigation, and supervise their building. Vessels were built of various sizes and for various purposes. There were those built for the transportation of elephants, and those of such construction as to be employed in sieges, while others were meant for the conveyance of merchandise. There were also ships which served for convenient habitations. The Emperor had also pleasure-boats built with convenient apartments, and others on which there were floating markets and flower-gardens. Every part of Akbar's empire abounded in ships, but the chief centres of shipbuilding were Bengal, Cashmeer, and Tata. In Allahabad and Lahore also were constructed ships of a size suitable for sea voyages. Along the coasts of the ocean in the west, east, and south of India also, large ships were built which were suitable for voyages.

The second duty of Akbar's Admiralty was regarding the supply of men, of efficient mariners who knew the nature of tides, the depths of ​channels, the coasts to be avoided, and the character of the prevailing winds. Every ship required officers and men of the following titles and descriptions: (1) The Nakhoda, or commander of the vessel, who directed the course of the ship; (2) the Maullim (the mate), who knew the soundings, the situation of the stars, and guided the ship safe to her destination; (3) the Tundeil, who was the chief of the khelasses or sailors; (4) the Nakhodakhesheb, whose duty it was to provide fuel for the people and assist in lading and unlading the ship; (5) the Sirheng, who had to superintend the docking and launching of the ship; (6) the Bhandaree, who had charge of the ship's store; (7) the Keranee, or ship's clerk, who kept the accounts and also served out water to the people; (8) the Sukangeer, or helmsman, of whom there were sometimes twenty in a ship; (9) the Punjeree, whose duty it was to look out from the top of the mast and give notice when he saw land or a ship, or discovered a storm rising, or any other object worth observing; (10) the Goomtee, or those particular khelasses who threw the water out of the ship; (11) the gunners, who differed in number according to the size of the ship; (12) the Kherwah, or common seamen, who were employed in setting and furling the sails and in stopping leaks, and in case of the anchor sticking fast in the ground they had to go to the bottom of the water to set it free.

​The third task of the Admiralty was "to watch the rivers," for which an active, resolute man was appointed, who settled everything relative to the ferries, regulated the tonnage, and provided travellers with boats on the shortest notice. Those who were not able to pay at the ferries passed over gratis, but no one was permitted to swim across a river. It was also the duty of this officer to hinder boats from travelling in the night except in cases of necessity. Nor was he to allow goods to be landed anywhere except at the public wharfs. Altogether the functions of this officer very nearly corresponded to those of Chandra Gupta's नावध्यक्ष or Superintendent of Ships.

The fourth duty of the Admiralty was in regard to the imposition, realization, and remission of duties. Akbar is said to have remitted duties equal to the revenues of a kingdom. Nothing was exacted upon exports and imports excepting a trifle taken at the ports which never exceeded ⁠2+1/2⁠ per cent., and was regarded by merchants as a perfect remission.^[1]

The Ayeen-i-Akbari^[2] also gives some details regarding the river tolls in Akbar's time:—

As regards details relating to the development of shipping in Bengal, we have to refer to the abstract of Ausil Toomar Jumma^[4] (original established revenue) of Bengal as settled in behalf of the Mogul Emperor Akbar, about the year 1582, by Raja Todar Mall, in which we find specific assignments for naval establishment. Some perganas were definitely assigned for maintaining the Imperial Nowwara (flotilla). Under the head of Omleh Nowwara we have mention of a naval establishment consisting, at the time it was established by Akbar, of 3,000 vessels or boats, but it was afterwards reduced to 768 armed cruisers and boats, besides the number of vessels required to be furnished by the zemindars in return for the lands they held as jaigeer. The whole expense of manning the fleet, including the wages of 923 Fringuan or Portuguese sailors, was estimated at Rs. 29,282 monthly, which, with constructing new vessels and repairing the old, amounted annually to Rs. 8,43,452. The fleet was ​principally stationed at Dacca, as its headquarters, from which was performed its functions for guarding the coast of Bengal against the then very frequent incursions of the Maggs and other foreign pirates or invaders. Under the royal jurisdiction of the Nowwara or Admiralty of Dacca was placed the whole coast from Mundelgaut (near the confluence of the Damodar and Rupnarayan) to the Bundar of Balesore, which was also liable to the invasion of the Maggs. In fact, the ordinary established rental of the whole country was then almost entirely absorbed in jaigeers and protecting the sea-coasts from the ravages of the Maggs or Arrakanese, aided by the Portuguese, who inhabited the port of Chatgaon, and who, in the hope of benefiting through their commerce, had also been allowed to make a settlement at Hugli. The jaigeers that were assigned to the Dacca district for the support of these military establishments of the country were computed to comprise nearly one-third of its extent. The Nowwara jaigeer, which was the principal assignment in the district, included the best lands of the Neabut, and was subdivided into numbers of small Taluks, which were granted to the boatmen and artificers of the fleet.^[5] Besides the perganas ​assigned for the support of the Nowwara, a fruitful source of revenue for the support of the naval establishment was derived from the Mheer Baree, which was a tax on the building of boats varying from 8 as. to R. 1 4 as., according to the size of the vessels. It was levied upon all boats arriving at or leaving the naval headquarters whose crews were not residents of the district.

A boat proceeding to Moorshidabad was charged at the rate of 8 as. per oar; to Calcutta 10 as.; and to Benares R. 1 8 as., while boats arriving from these places were taxed at the rate of 1, 2, and 4 rupees per boat. The Mehal was originally confined to the city, but it afterwards extended to the country, where it was exacted by the zemindars and farmers from every boat that passed their estates. It was considered useful in leading to the detection of dacoits, as a registry of the boats, manjees, and boatmen belonging to each district was kept by the zemindars.^[6]

As already pointed out, the naval establishment at Dacca was necessitated by the depredations of the Arrakan pirates, both Magg and Feringi, who used constantly to come by the water route and plunder Bengal. "They carried off the Hindus and Moslems, . . . threw them one above another under the decks of their ships . . . and sold them to the Dutch, English, and French merchants at the ports of the Deccan. Sometimes they brought the captives for sale at a high price to Tamluk and the port of Balasore, which is a part of the imperial ​dominions."^[7] With regard to their power it is said that "their cannons are beyond numbering, their flotilla exceeds the waves of the sea."^[8] Their ships were so strongly made of timber with a hard core that "cannons could not pierce them."^[9] They were such a terror to the Bengal navy that "whenever 100 warships of Bengal sighted four ships of the enemy, if the distance separating them was great the Bengal crew showed fight by flight."^[10]

The materials for the building of the Royal Nowwara came from Sylhet, which was then of great importance from its natural growth of ship-timbers, which could be built into vessels of different sizes.^[11] The shipyards from the Magg and Feringi fleets were towards the south at Sandwipa, a part of the kingdom of Arrakan. The Venetian traveller, Cesare di Fedrici, writing about the year 1565, states that 200 ships were laden yearly with salt, and that such was the abundance of materials for shipbuilding in this part of the country that the Sultan of Constantinople found it cheaper to have his vessels built here than at Alexandria.^[12]

There was quite a large variety of vessels built ​and stationed at Dacca. Besides the 768 war-boats making up the Nowwara, there were state-barges for the Viceroys, and two vessels, magnificently fitted up, had annually to be dispatched to the Emperor at Agra, though afterwards, when the Mogul Government declined in vigour, and the Nawabs of Bengal became virtually independent, these state-boats, though avowedly sent for the use of his Majesty, never reached higher than Murshidabad. The state-barges were distinguished by different names according to the figures on their prows, as "Mohrpunkee," from that of a peacock, "Muggurchera," of an alligator, etc. Boating was then a general and favourite pastime with the rich as it was with the Nawabs.^[13]

Besides Bengal, the province of Sindh was a great centre of Indian shipping. Abul-Fazl informs us that in the circar of Thatta alone there could be found 40,000 vessels ready for hire.^[14] Lahori Bandar in those days was an important seaport on the Indus, and the following account of the harbour regulations in force there given in the Tarikh-i-Tahiri is very interesting:—

We may now refer to some of the naval engagements of Akbar's reign. In 1580 Raja Todar Mall, who had been directed to fit out 1,000 boats (kishti) and ghrabs at Agra, was sent by the Emperor to settle the revenues of Gujarat.^[16] In 1590 Akbar sent Khan-i-Khanan against Mirza Jani Beg of Thatta, who pretended to independence, whereupon the Mirza sent 120 armed ghrabs and 200 boats against him. In each of these ghrabs there were carpenters for quickly repairing the damages that might be caused by guns. Some of Jani Beg's ghrabs were manned by Feringhi soldiers. Jani Beg was eventually defeated, fled, and was pursued till he offered terms, giving up to the imperial general thirty ghrabs among other things.^[17] In 1574 Akbar ​opened his long-continued campaign against Behar and Bengal, and sent the Khan Khanan Munim Khan with the imperial forces against Daud, who was putting up near Patna and Hajipur. The Emperor determined to personally direct the operations, and embarked with a huge fleet, carrying "all his equipments and establishments, armour, drums, treasure, carpets, kitchen utensils, stud, etc. Two large boats were specially prepared for his own accommodation." When he reached Patna by boat he gave orders for the reduction of the fort of Hajipur, and "Khan Alam was sent off with 3,000 men in boats with the materials required for a siege." After the fall of Hajipur, Daud fled in a boat, and Patna fell into the hands of the Emperor, who appointed Khan Khanan to the government of Bengal, giving him all the boats which he had brought down from Agra, with a large army. But Bengal was not easily pacified. The Mogul jaigirdars in Bengal and Behar attempted to defy Akbar's authority. The Afghans also availed themselves of this opportunity, took up arms, and made themselves masters of Orissa and part of Bengal. Finding that the Afghan and Mogul officers were defiant, Akbar appointed Hindu governors of Bengal, of whom Todar Mall was the first. The second was Raja Man Singh of Jaipur, who ruled Bengal from 1589 to 1604.

It was during Man Singh's viceroyalty that we ​find a remarkable outburst of naval activity in Eastern Bengal, and proofs of a naval organization that was being slowly and silently built up by the efforts of some of the independent Hindu landlords of Bengal, while the Mogul Government was busy establishing the Nowwara at Dacca. The chief centres of this Hindu naval activity were Sripur, Bakla or Chandradwipa, in the south-east of the modern district of Backergunj and Chandikan, which is identified with the Saugor Island. The Lord of Sripur was Kedar Roy, who was quite a naval genius but hardly sufficiently known. He had many men-of-war kept always in readiness in his shipyards and naval stations. In 1602 he recovered the island of Sandwipa from the Moguls and placed its government in the hands of the Portuguese under Carvalius. This, however, roused the jealousy and alarm of the King of Arrakan, who forthwith dispatched 150 vessels of war, large and small, to conquer Sandwipa. Kedar Roy, equal to the occasion, at once sent 100 vessels of war in aid of his allies. In the battle that was fought the allies of Kedar Roy came off victorious, and they captured 149 of the enemy's vessels. The King of Arrakan fared equally ill in his second attempt against Kedar Roy's allies, although he dispatched as many as 1,000 war-vessels against them. But Kedar Roy had to face a more powerful enemy in another direction about the same time. For Raja ​Man Singh, the then Viceroy of Bengal, was convinced of the necessity of extinguishing the power and independence of Kedar Roy, and sent Manda Roy with 100 war-vessels for the purpose. But in the battle that was fought Manda Roy was slain. This, however, only incited Man Singh to make a second and far stronger attempt to subdue Kedar Roy in a.d. 1604. Kedar Roy, equipped with fully 500 men-of-war, first took the offensive and besieged the Mogul general Kilmak at Srinagara, but was eventually himself taken prisoner after a furious cannonade. He was brought before Man Singh, but soon died of his wounds.^[18]

Bakla also was another important centre of naval strength in Bengal under the famous landlord Rāmachandra Roy. His escape with his life from the clutches of Protāpāditya of Jessore, in a boat furnished with guns and propelled by 64 oarsmen, is a well-known fact.^[19] The reputation of Rāmachandra as a hero was fully maintained by his son and successor, Kirtinārāyaṇa, who was ​equally skilful in naval warfare, and succeeded in ousting the Feringhis from their settlements near the mouths of the Meghna. His alliance was courted even by the Nawab of Dacca.

But by far the most important seat of Hindu maritime power of the times in Bengal was that established at Chandikan or Saugor Island by the constructive genius of Protāpāditya, the redoubtable ruler of Jessore. Numbers of men-of-war were always to be found ready for battle and in a seaworthy condition at that naval station. There were also three other places where Protap built his shipyards and dockyards: these were Dudhali, Jāhāja-ghāta, and Chakaśrī, where his ships were built, repaired, and kept.

But the maritime activity of Bengal in this period found its scope not only in war, but also in the gentler arts of peace. Foreign writers and travellers who visited Bengal in the 16th century speak in high terms of the wealth flowing from her brisk sea-borne trade and the greatness and magnificence of some of her ports. Purchas describes Bengal as "plentiful in rice, wheat, sugar, ginger, long-pepper, cotton, and silk, and enjoying also a very wholesome air." Varthema (1503-1508) says of Bengal: "This country abounds more in grain, flesh of every kind, in great quantity of sugar, also of ginger, and of great abundance of cotton, than any country in the world." Ralph Fitch, probably ​the first English traveller to Bengal (1586), mentions some of the ports and marts of Bengal. One of these was Tanḍa, where there was "great trade and traffic of cotton and cotton cloth." Another was Bacla, which "is very great and plentiful, and hath store of rice, much cotton cloth, and cloth of silk." The third was Sripur with its "great store of cotton cloth." Of the fourth, viz. Sonargaon, he says, "Here is best and finest cloth made of cotton that is in all India. . . . Great store of cotton cloth goeth from here, and much rice, wherewith they serve all India, Ceylon, Pegu, Malacca, Sumatra, and many other places." Satgaon was another great emporium of Bengal for foreign commerce, and is thus described by Fitch: "Satgaon is a fair city for a city of the Moors and very plentiful of all things. Here in Bengal they have every day, in one place or other, a great market which they call 'Chandeun,' and they have many great boats which they call 'pencose,' wherewithal they go from place to place and buy rice and many other things; their boats have 24 or 26 oars to row them, they be of great burthen. . . ." Bengal was also noted for her salt trade, the centre of which was Sandwipa, whence "300 ships are yearly laden with salt."

But perhaps the most important commercial centre of Bengal in this period was the city of Gaur, the history of which may be traced as far ​back as the days of Pala and Sena kings. As the place was surrounded on all sides by rivers it naturally gave a great impetus to boat-building and maritime activity, of which the first proofs we get are in the time of the Pala kings. In the Kalimpur copper-plate inscription of Dharmapaladeva there is a reference to bridges^[20] of boats built for the transport of armies, and also to an officer called Tarik, who was the general superintendent of boats. In some of the copper-plate inscriptions of the Sena kings, also, there is mention of naval force as an element of their military organization.^[21] Under the Musulman kings of Bengal, Gaur continued to grow in prosperity and importance. We have already seen how in the 15th century ambassadors from China to Bengal and from Bengal to China used to carry presents as tokens of mutual friendship between the sovereigns of both the countries.^[22] In the 16th century, under the rule of the Hussain Shah dynasty, the city attained its greatest splendour. Hussain Shah (1498-1520 a.d.) ​himself maintained a powerful fleet, with which he once invaded Assam.^[23] In Hunter's Statistical Account of Bengal^[24] there is a story related about one Shaikh Bhik of Gaur, a cloth merchant, who once "set sail for Russia with three ships laden with silk cloths, but two of his ships were wrecked somewhere in the neighbourhood of the Persian Gulf." Accounts of the magnificence of the city are given by foreign travellers who visited Bengal about this time. Varthema (1503-1508) mentions how from "the city of Banghella" (Gaur) sail every year "fifty ships laden with cotton and silk stuffs." De Barros gives the following description of the city, based on the accounts of Portuguese travellers who visited it in the reign of Mahmud III. (1532-1538 a.d.): "The chief city of the kingdom is called Gaur. It is said to be three of our leagues in length and contain 200,000 inhabitants. The streets are so thronged with the concourse and traffic of people that they cannot force their way past. A great part of the houses of this city are stately and well-wrought buildings." Manuel de Faria y Souza^[25] wrote: "The principal city Gouro, seated on the bank of the Ganges, three leagues in length, containing one million and two hundred ​thousand families, and well fortified; along the streets, which are wide and straight, rows of trees to shade the people, which sometimes in such numbers that some are trod to death." Besides these foreign notices of the prosperity of Gaur we have also some native accounts still extant. We have already made extracts from the account contained in Kavikaṅkaṇa Chandi of the adventures of the merchant Dhanapati, who lived many years in Gaur, and of his son Śrīmanta, who sailed in quest of his father to Sinhala in ships of 100 yards length and 20 yards breadth, with prows shaped like Makara, or the head of an elephant or a lion. In one of the old folk-songs of Gambhirā,^[26] belonging to Malda district, there is an interesting reference to another merchant of the name of Dhanapati, who sailed from Delhi to Gaur in ships that occupied so much of the river that there was scarcely any room left for bathing or taking water.^[27] According to Malda local tradition, preserved in some old Bengali MSS., there were several Arab merchants who settled in Gaur for purposes of ​commerce. One of the MSS. gives a glowing description, through the mouth of Chamban Ali, a merchant from Bagdad, of the port of Gaur as seen from the opposite side of the river, and of the innumerable ships and boats, testifying to the vastness of its maritime trade. Some light is thrown on the growth of the shipbuilding industry of Gaur by an old Bengali MS., a poem, called Manasāmaṅgalā, by Jagajjibana. The merchant Chand Saodagar summons to his presence the master-craftsman named Kusai, and orders him to build for him fourteen boats at once. Forthwith goes Kusai with his many apprentices to the forest, where he fells all kinds of trees for materials to build the various parts of the boats with. There were soon hewed out three or four lacs of planks which were afterwards joined together by means of iron nails.^[28] It is also a significant fact that some very old masts of ships have been unearthed in some of the villages in the neighbourhood of Pandua through which the Mahānandā once flowed.^[29]